Syria

Syrian Arab Republic

The name and culture of Syria has ancient origins, referring to a region once known as the Levant. Absorbed into the Ottoman Empire during the 16th Century, the modern state of Syria was created as part of the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916, originally as a territory under French mandate. Between 1925 and 1927 a series of battles ensued between French troops and Syrian dissidents supporting independence. Syria remained under French control until 1941, when it again proclaimed its independence. In 1946, the Syrian Republic was established and recognized.

The country aligned itself with other Arab nations during the Arab-Israeli War of 1948, and its subsequent defeat led to a period of instability lasting through the 1950s. Historically aligned with the USSR and Egypt, Syria merged with the latter in 1958 forming the United Arab Republic (1958-1961). However, a military seizure of power in September of 1961 dissolved the union and led to the establishment of the Syrian Arab Republic (الجمهورية العربية السورية), a name that the nation retains today, despite a major regime change after December 2024.

Syria fought Israel again in the Six Day War (1967), during which Syria lost control of the Golan Heights. The territory was regained briefly during the Yom Kippur War (1973), but retaken by Israel, which has retained possession ever since. Syria was heavily involved during the Lebanese Civil War, sending troops into Lebanon itself to support insurgent forces (particularly the Amal Movement) and plausibly to seek control over the entire territory. Syrian military forces remained in Lebanon long after the war ended, but were forced to withdraw finally in 2005 under international pressure.

The Syrian government and Ministry of Defence have long been supportive of Palestinian efforts to establish sovereign territory within the present state of Israel. Various factions of the PLO received direct military aid from Syria, and indeed Syrian manufactured military equipment (including Syrian-made camouflage uniforms) have frequently been documented among Palestinian insurgent forces. Syrians have also harbored mixed views about neighboring Lebanon, once considered a part of the Arab Kingdom of Syria. Many Syrians simply hope for a stable economy and safe borders with their neighbor, but a strong percentage have always worked towards establishing a pro-Syrian government or even outright unification, with complete Syrian control. Certain paramilitary groups operating within Lebanese territory have historically been trained and funded completely by Syrian government sources. A list of groups operating outside Syria but with political and military allegiance to the Syrian Ba'athist government included:

• The Syrian Social Nationalist Party (الحزب السوري القومي الاجتماعي‎) or SSNP
• Al-Mourabitoun ("the Guardians"), aka the Independent Nasserite Movement (حركة الناصريين المستقلين-المرابطون) - a political party and militia embracing the Marxist and pan-Arab ideals of then Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser - politically allied to Syria
• Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, General Command (PFLP-GC) - Syrian-backed splinter group of the PLO (founded 1968)
• As-Sa'iqa or al-Saika (الصاعقة) - Syrian controlled Ba'athist faction (founded 1968)
• Palestine Liberation Army (PLA) - founded in 1964 and initially envisioned as the military wing of the PLO, this well-supplied paramilitary unit at one time had as many as 12,000 uniformed fighters organized in three Brigades. In practice, the PLA never actually deployed in support of the PLO, but instead functioned as an auxiliary wing, first of the Egyptian Army, and later of the Syrian Army until 1993.
• The Amal Movement (أفواج المقاومة اللبنانية) – a political movement and militia with strong ties to the Shi’a population (est 1974)

The Ba'athist era Syrian Armed Forces consisted of approximately 325,000 regular personnel in four primary branches of service: the Syrian Arab Army, Syrian Arab Air Force, Syrian Arab Navy (including a regiment of Marines), and the Syrian Arab Air Defence Forces. Additionally, a number of paramilitary forces such as the National Defence Forces (قوات الدفاع الوطني), a kind of national militia, and the Desert Hawks Brigade (لواء صقور الصحراء), supported the Assad regime. A number of units within the Syrian Arab Army were designated "Commando" (e.g. the 59th Commando Battalion of the 5th Mechanized Division), which appears to have designated elite status and possibly specialized training or equippage, but not necessarily the same significance attributed to commandos in other armed forces (i.e. "special forces"). Likewise, the 14th and 15th Special Forces Divisions was organized into three or more regiments, and were also trained more in the manner of specialized light infantry than conventional special operations forces. A more conventionally specialized formation was the 25th Special Mission Forces Division - known historially as the Tiger Forces (قُوَّات النِّمْر) - which included approximately 12,000 trained personnel, and was organized into a number of subgroups such as "Cheetah Forces," "Panther Forces," and elite armor and artillery formations. The Ba'athist Republican Guard was a loyalist military formation of approximately 60,000 personnel, specifically tasked with protecting the president, top government officials, and the capital of Damascus. The Republican Guard were organized into a number of armored, mechanized, artillery, and units with special designations such as Commando or Special Forces. The Public Security Police (شرطة الأمن العام) were the main law enforcement agency of the Assad era and included divisions for common civil crime prevention as well as internal security units.

The Syrian Civil War

Sparked by political unrest and regime change in other parts of Western Asia and North Africa - collectively referred to as the "Arab Spring" Movement - in March 2011 Syrian dissidents began demonstrating against President Bashar al-Assad and his Ba'ath party, which had maintained strict one-party control over the nation for nearly fifty years. Heavy handed and violently oppressive responses from the government and lack of international involvement eventually spawned a full-scale civil war, which raged across the nation for over thirteen years (Mar 2011 - Dec 2024). By late 2013, the list of paramilitary and militia groups fighting in the war included the following:

Pro-Syrian (Ba'athist) Government Groups

• The National Defense Force (NDF, or قوة الدفاع الوطني‎) - a pro-Syrian government paramilitary force, organized in late 2012, that receives supplies and training from the Syrian government. The NDF operate in support of the Syrian Army, primarily in the ground defense role.
• Shabiha (شبيحة) – civilian Ba’athist militia, led by Namir al-Assad
• Al-Jaysh al-Sha’bi (الجيش الشعبي) – loyalist militia of Shi’a and Alawi
• Syrian Resistance (المقاومة السورية), aka the Popular Front for the Liberation of the Sanjak of Alexandretta – pro-government, Marxist-Leninist militia operating in Northwest Syria
• Al Abbas Brigade (لواء أبو الفضل العباس), aka Liwa Abu al-Fadl al-Abbas (the Brigade of Abu al-Fadl al-Abbas) – Shi’a militia, allied to Hezbollah
• Sariyya al-Tali’a al-Khurasani - Jihadist Shi'a militia supported by Iran and Hezbollah
• Liwa'a Zulfigar (LZ) - Jihadist Shi'a militia based in Damascus, established in 2013
• Iranian Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC)
• Hezbollah
• Private military contractors, such as the PMC "Slavonic Corps" (ex-Russian servicemen) - essentially mercenaries working for the Assad government.

Syrian Opposition Groups

• Free Syrian Army (FSA) (الجيش السوري الحر) – initially the largest and most well-organized militia, receiving considerable war materiel from Turkey and bolstered by foreign fighters from Algeria, Tunisia, Jordan and Saudi Arabia
• Syrian National Army (الجيش الوطني السوري) - military wing of Syrian Interim Government, it emerged from the FSA in 2017 under Turkish guidance
• New Syrian Army (جيش مغاوير الثورة) or Revolutionary Commando Army - trained and supported by USA & UK since 2015
• Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) (Hêzên Sûriya Demokratîk) - a coalition of Kurdish, Assyrian/Syriac and other ethnic minority militant groups formed in 2013, including the People's Defense Units (YPG) and the Women's Defense Units (YPJ) - backed by the United States
• Syria Martyr’s Brigade (Idlib Martyr’s Brigade), formerly the Syrian Liberation Army (until 2012) – mostly civilian militia operating in Idlib province
• Liwaa al-Umma (Banner of the Nation) (لواء الامة) – moderate Islamist revolutionary movement
• Syrian Islamic Liberation Front (SILF) (جبهة تحرير سوريا الإسلامية) – a coalition of Sunni Islamist units
• Jaysh al-Islam (Army of Islam)( جيش الإسلام) – Damascus-based coalition of militias, reputedly supported by Saudi Arabia and Pakistan
• Syrian Islamic Front (لجبهة الإسلامية السورية) – Salafi Islamist coalition
• Ahfad al-Rasul Brigade (لجبهة الإسلامية السورية) – independent Sunni militia, funded by the government of Qatar
• Al-Nusra Front ( جبهة النصرة لأهل الشام) – Sunni Islamist mujahideen movement, reputedly part of Al-Qaeda network
• Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) (الدولة الإسلامية) – Islamist/Jihadist group established in 2003 and also operating in Iraq; also known as al-Dawla al-Islamiya fi al-Iraq wa al-Sham (Daesh)(2014-2016)
• Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham (هيئة تحرير الشام) (HTS) - formed in 2017 by merging the Jaysh al-Ahrar (an Ahrar al-Sham faction), Jabhat Fateh al-Sham (JFS), Ansar al-Din Front, Jaysh al-Sunna, and Liwa al-Haqq and the Nour al-Din al-Zenki Movement and allied to the Syrian Salvation Movement

Circa November 2023, the following claimed control of certain regions of Syria, listed from largest proportion to smallest:

• Syrian Arab Republic (SAA) - supported by the Russian intervention since 2015
• Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (since 2012) - Syrian Democratic Forces
• Syrian Interim Government (2013) - Syrian National Army (SNA), supported by Turkey since 2017
• Free Syrian Army, aka New Syrian Army (NSA), or Revolutionary Commando Army (2015)
• Syrian Salvation Government (tied to Al-Queda until 2016)
• Islamic State (ISIS) - small pockets in central Syria (previously controlled over half of Syria)

A major offensive in November 2024 by Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham led to the loss of Aleppo by the Syrian government and a continued push into the Hama province, the main city of which (Hama) fell to the HTS on 5 December. This was followed immediately thereafter by the capture of Suwayda, Daraa, and Homs by rebel forces, and a final push towards Damascus. The Assad regime came to an end on 8 December 2024, with remnants of loyalist Syrian Arab Armed Forces fleeing to neighboring Iraq or Lebanon and Assad himself being granted exile in Russia. By February 2025, an agreement was made to merge the remaining elements of the Syrian Armed Forces with the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), which has remained tentative at best. A transitional government was formed in March, under president Ahmed al-Sharaa, and efforts have been made to invite many anti-Assad insurgent groups to become part of the coalition, as well as integrating former militia into the new armed forces. Under the new government, the new Syrian Armed Forces is still in the process of being reorganized. Remnants of the old Public Security Police were reformed into the new General Security Service (جهاز الأمن العام) in late 2024.

Regional violence has continued in some regions of Syria, most notably the slaughter of Alawites in March 2025 (by combatants aligned to the interim government as well as former Assad troops), and clashes between Druze militia from Suwayda Governorate and members of the General Security Service between April and June 2025.

Camouflage Patterns of the Syrian Arab Republic

• Dating to the 1970s is a Syrian copy of the Pakistani arid brushstroke camouflage pattern. Supporting a well-established textile and garment industry for decades, most Syrian uniforms are locally-made, although the originals in this pattern might have been produced from imported fabric.

• Having a lengthy association with France, it should be no surprise that Syria has been heavily influenced by French military camouflage, particularly the tenue du leopard or lizard designs. The earliest Syrian made copies seem to retain the russet or orange stripes of the original French designs, although in some cases the stripes are vertically aligned rather than horizontally.

• Another early pattern derivative of the French lizard is a vertical stripe pattern with dark colors. Sometimes referred to as "green lizard," the design incorporates vertical stripes of brown and dark green on a pale green background. The pattern was reputedly worn by some Syrian Commando and Paratroop units, although it is most commonly associated with units of the PLO. Over the years the pattern earned an association among collectors with a supposed Syrian unit called the "Saika Division;" however, such a Division is undocumented, and in fact the term probably refers to As-Sa'iqa (Al-Sa'iqa), a militant faction of the PLO that was supported by Syria until the early 1990s. This pattern strongly resembles one later adopted by Egypt for certain military police and Presidential Guard units.

• The camouflage pattern probably most commonly associated with the Syrian Armed Forces is another lizard variant design having reddish stripes. Introduced in the mid-1970s, the pattern continued to be worn by Syrian, Lebanese and some PLO elements well into the 1990s, although it seems to have fallen into disuse today. Inconsistencies in production standards have led to quite a number of variations being produced, although in most cases the primary difference is a slight variation in the original colors printed, rather than an alteration of the drawings themselves. Both vertical and horizontal orientations have been documented, although the latter seem to be more prevalent. The "red lizard" patterns seem to be primarily associated with airborne and commando units, and not with conventional forces.

• Based on similar drawings but with a different colorway is this "purple lizard" design, also used by Syrian forces, as well as PLO elements operating from out of Lebanon.

• Beginning in the 1980s, Syrian military forces began deploying with a locally-made copy of the US m1948 ERDL camouflage pattern. There is likely to be some connection to Iraq and/or Jordan, as both countries were using a similar camouflage design at this time. The "Syrian leaf" pattern employs a different color scheme, and, as with most locally-made uniforms, is printed on a heavier weight cotton fabric.

• An interesting variation of the above leaf pattern uses a reddish or pink colorway, although is based on the same set of drawings. It appears this pattern was employed primarily by elite Military Police or Security Forces of the Syrian Army.

• Using a different set of drawings than the earler "Syrian leaf" pattern, the present day camouflage design is seen here.

• The Ministry of Interior elite Special Missions Force (SMF) circa 2012 adopted a woodland variation with a grey/blue colorway, similar to commercial patterns and those adopted by Air Force personnel in some nations.

• In recent years, Syrian forces have begun wearing a literal copy of the US-designed m81 woodland design such as the one seen below. The pattern has also seen sporadic use with insurgent forces during the Civil War.

Camouflage Patterns of the Syrian Armed Forces

• Although the Syrian Armed Forces are still in the process of being trained and reorganized, a decision by the interim government was made to transition away from previously worn uniforms and promote a new look for a new army. Since at least August 2025, a Multicam clone has been fielded by the ground forces (Syrian Army) and some members of other branches of service, although remnants of older units still retain their previously worn camouflage until a full resupply can be managed.

• Some units of the Syrian Armed Forces have been observed wearing a variation of DPM, although at present their designation is unknown.

• Additionally, units of the newly restructured Syrian Navy are wearing a blue-dominant version of DPM pattern. This pattern has been in use since at least August 2025.

• Syrian Military Police have adopted a variation of the DPM pattern worn by the Syrian Navy, in traditional desert colors.

• The main law enforcment agency of the Syrian Ministry of the Interior is the General Security Service (جهاز الأمن العام), also called the Internal Security Forces (ISF). This branch is responsible for a wide range of law enforcement duties, but also has a paramiliary component that is tasked with internal security. The ISF has been observed wearing black Multicam uniforms since 2025.

Camouflage Patterns of Opposition and Unconventional Forces

As with the previous civil war of liberation in Libya (February to October 2011), the numerous factions and sources of military support have made it challenging to track consistent use of camouflage combat uniforms amongst the forces opposing the Syrian government. It has been particularly difficult to determine which camouflage patterns and uniforms have been obtained in quantity (from disparate sources), and which have simply appeared among the combatants singly or in scattered numbers. In addition to standard Syrian Army camouflage uniforms and equipment (which have appeared in abundance), insurgent forces have also made significant use of donated uniforms from supporting nations like Turkey and Jordan. Several types of vertical lizard camouflage have been documented, but in such small numbers it has yet to be determined the sources. The patterns illustrated below have appeared in significant enough numbers to verify their existence in quantity among the liberation movements.

• The Free Syria Army (FSA) has received complete camouflage uniforms from Turkey in the same digital pattern worn by the Turkish Army, and also the more recent pattern adopted by the Turkish Air Force.

• Copies of the US-designed six-color "chocolate chip" desert pattern have appeared in significant numbers among insurgent forces, most likely obtained through sources in Libya or Jordan. It has also been observed among members of the NDF.

• Also appearing in significant numbers among both insurgent forces and the NDF have been copies of the tricolor desert pattern, also originally fielded by the USA.

• The STK militia have received considerable support from Iran and Hezbollah, including stocks of Iranian camouflage uniforms. The patterns illustrated here seem to be the most commonly encountered among this militia. Apparently some pro-Assad forces (e.g. NDF) have also been known to wear the digital pattern.

• Asian-made copies of the USMC MARPAT camouflage design have been documented in use by some insurgents, most notably among members of a militia calling itself the Liwa’a al-Imam al-Hasan al-Mujtaba. Members of the same militia have also been photographed wearing various Iranian woodland camouflage designs, such as those directly above this entry. The pattern has also seen use by Kurdish YPG and YPJ.

• A variation of the USMC MARPAT camouflage design, having brighter green tones, has been in use with the predominantly Kurdish Yekîneyên Parastina Gel (YPG) and Yekîneyên Parastina Jin (YPJ) since 2017.

• The Liwa'a Zulfigar (لواء ذو الفقار) or Zulfigar Battalion have posted photographs of their militia members wearing two primary camouflage designs, a copy of the British Army desert DPM pattern, and a pixelated design similar to that worn by the UAE (and probably sourced from Libya).

• Widespread use of Multicam and OCP pattern camouflage uniforms by both Free Syrian Army and Syrian National Army personnel began around 2018, and has continued by remnants of those organizations into the present era. Precise sources for the uniforms are unknown, but presumably some were provided by the United States while others were probably obtained through sources in Asia.

Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria

The Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (DAANES) is an (internationally) unrecognized, but self-governing area of Syria that includes the regions of Jazira, Euphrates, Raqqa, Tabqa, and Deir ez-Zor. Its autonomous status was achieved in 2012 during the Syrian Civil War, and as part of the ongoing Rojava Conflict. The DAANES is primarily composed of ethnic Arabs, Kurds, and Assyrians, but is also home to several smaller minority communities. Historically this region has also been known as Western Kurdistan, or Rojava, and it maintains a strong Kurdish identity.

During the 1980s and 1990s, parts of the region served as a home base for training camps of the Kurdistan Workers Party, or PKK (Partiya Karkerên Kurdistanê), which has waged a long standing war against the government of Turkey. From 2002 on many Kurds in north Syria formed the Democratic Union Party or PYD (Partiya Yekîtiya Demokrat) to distance themselves from the PKK, and its paramiltary wing the YPG (Yekîneyên Parastina Gel) was a major component of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF) during the civil war (see above).

The Asayish (Asayîş) (Internal Security Forces) are the internal security and police forces of the DAANES, reportedly with over 15,000 personnel. Although its duties focus primarily on law enforcement, Asayish does have an intelligence component, as well as an Anti-Terror Forces Command (HAT) and a specialized de-mining branch. Several towns and most of the sub-regions (Jazira, Raqqa, etc) also have their own police or security forces.

• The Hêzên Antî Teror (HAT) are the Anti-Terrorist Forces Command of the Asayish, and have received specialized training comparable to SWAT or other special law enforcement teams. The unit wear a pixelated camouflage design with a dark blue colorway.