China

The People's Republic of China

China or Zhōngguó (中國) is the second-largest nation by land area as well as the world's most populous country. Today known as the People's Republic of China (中华人民共和国) or PRC, this region has been occupied by humans since at least 11,000 BCE and produced one of the world's most ancient civilizations. China also has one of the fastest growing economies in the world.

Chinese tradition holds that the first imperial dynasty, the Xia (夏朝), was established around 2070 BCE. This was followed by the Shang Dynasty (商朝 - 1600-1046 BCE), and the Zhou Dynasty (周朝 - 1046-256 BCE) - the latter being sub-divided into two periods, the Western and Eastern Zhou. The latter part of the Zhou (771-476 BCE) is often called the Warring States period, referring to a general era of warfare and regional shifting that took place between seven major states: Qin, Han, Wei, Zhao, Qi, Chu and Yan. The state of Qin was ultimately successful in consolidating power, and thus in 221 began the dynastic rule of the Qin over all of China, and the beginning of what is known as the Imperial period of Chinese history. It is during this Qin period that considerable portions of the Great Wall (万里长城) were built.

The Qin dynasty (秦朝) was followed by that of the Han (汉朝/漢朝), lasting from 206 BCE to 220 CE. This was succeeded in turn by a period known as the Three Kingdoms of Wei (魏), Shu (蜀), and Wu (吳), after which the Jin Dynasty (晉朝 - 265-420 CE) was established. Another period of civil war and unrest lasted from 420 to 589 CE, and is known as the Southern and Northern Dynasties period (南北朝). Although an era of warfare and strife, this period also saw a flourishing of arts and culture, significant advancement in technology, and the spreading of Mahayana Buddhism and Taoism throughout China.

The Sui (隋) Dynasty was a short-lived era (581–618 CE) that saw the conquest of Vietnam, as well as costly but unsuccessful military campaigns against the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo. This period was followed by the Tang Dynasty (唐朝), considered a golden age of cosmopolitan culture and a period of progress and stability. Chinese culture had considerable influence at this time over Vietnam, Korea and Japan, and many significant advances were made in engineering, literature, printing, medicine, religion and philosophy. Although lasting from 618–907 CE, the dynasty ultimately collapsed after a series of rebellions and natural disasters, leaving the region in relative chaos.

Following the demise of the Tang Dynasty, an era known as the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period (五代十国) lasted from 907–960/979 CE. As the name implies, this was characterized by the establishment of ten small kingdoms and five small dynasties, each of which consolidated its power only in small portions of the country. This period was succeeded by the Song Dynasty (宋朝 - 960-1279 CE), another golden age that saw the establishment of the first permanent Chinese naval force, as well as the first distribution of paper money in human history. This era experienced a flourishing of artistic and philosophical pursuits, a revival of traditional Confucian principles, and a population that nearly doubled to 10 million.

During the 12th century, the Mongol Empire began encroaching further and further into Chinese territory, gradually assuming greater military control. This culminated in the establishment of a Yuan (大元) Dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271, which ultimately controlled all of China until 1368 CE. During this warring period, the Chinese population was reduced from 120 millions to only 60 millions. As Mongol military power began to wane, the Ming Dynasty or Great Ming (大明) was established in 1368, beginning another golden era of prosperity, expansion and a flourishing of art and culture. This period also saw the Chinese capital moved to Beijing.

After control of Beijing was lost during a peasant revolt in 1644, Ming forces allied themselves with those of the Manchu. Control of the city was recovered, and Beijing became the capital of the Manchu Qing Dynasty or Great Qing (大清), the last imperial dynasty of China. This lengthy era saw the First (1839–42) and Second Opium Wars (1856–60) with France and Britain, following which control of Hong Kong was ceded to the British. From 1856–60 the First Sino-Japanese War took place, which resulted in the loss of Chinese influence over Korea and the cession of Taiwan to Japan. This era also saw several periods of internal unrest during the 1850s and 1860s, the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–79 (in which as many as 13 millions may have died), and the beginning of a great emigration of Chinese to the Americas, Australia, South Africa and Southeast Asia.

The Xinhai Revolution of 1911–12 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China, established by Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (the KMT or Nationalist Party). Although regional control was wrested from various warlords by Chiang Kai-shek in the 1920s, the Nationalist armed forces were unable to prevent political division from occurring as the Communists rapidly gained popularity, leading to a Chinese Civil War (1927-1950). By the time of the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), an uneasy alliance existed between Nationalist and Communist forces. This war saw as many as 20 million Chinese deaths at the hands of the Japanese, including as many as 200,000 in the city of Nanjing alone.

Following the Japanese surrender at the end of the Second World War, Taiwan came under administrative control of the Republic of China and hostilities between the Nationalists and Communists resumed. These continued until 1949, by which time the Communist Party was in control of most of the mainland and the Nationalists retreated to consolidate their power on Taiwan (Republic of China). In October 1949, the new People's Republic of China was founded with Mao Zedong as its first Chairman.

The Chinese armed forces are known collectively as the People's Liberation Army (中国人民解放军), the largest armed force in the world. The PLA consists of the People's Liberation Army Ground Forces (about 1.6 million personnel), People's Liberation Army Navy or PLAN (consisting of three major fleets), People's Liberation Army Air Force or PLAAF (organized into seven regional air Forces), and the Second Artillery Corps (the PLA strategic missile forces). Special troops within the PLA include People's Liberation Army Special Forces (中国特种部队) as well as three complete Airborne Divisions under the Air Force.

National law enforcement falls under the jurisdiction of the Chinese People's Armed Police Force (中国人民武装警察部队), or CAPF, with approximately 1.5 million personnel that include border security forces, special installation and national resource guard units, fire fighting units, and special operations forces.

Camouflage Patterns of the Chinese Armed Forces

• Chinese sources indicate the first style camouflage introduced for the PLA (People's Liberation Army) was a four-color disruptive design having black, mid-brown and moss green disruptive shapes on pale green background. Coloration and shapes suggest this may have been a crude attempt at copying the British Army DPM camouflage pattern, possibly from photographs. This pattern dates to the mid-1970s, and would have been limited to use by sappers, commandos and airborne troops.

• The Type 81 (八一 or Bayi) reversible camouflage uniform was printed in four distinctive, double-sided designs - two versions for issue in Northern regions and two for issue in Southern regions. Introduced in the mid- to -late 1970s, these designs saw service into the 1980s, including during the Sino-Vietnamese War.

The two designs (reversible) seen here are Version 1 (North)

The two designs (reversible) seen below are Version 2 (North)

The two designs (reversible) seen below are Version 1 (South)

The two designs (reversible) seen below are Version 2 (South)

• Circa 1980, the PLA further examined the use of camouflage by specialized troops (primarily scouts and sappers), and began experimenting with a design possibly influenced by the pattern printed on American parachute shrouds of the 1960s. This design features amoebic spot shapes in dark green and ochre on a light sand or khaki background. Evidence suggests the pattern first appeared on personnel in Northern China around 1981 and did see some service with special operations personnel during the battle of Laoshan in 1984. Ironically, it seems this same pattern was later supplied to Vietnamese and worn by their specialized sapper troops đặc công towards the end of that decade.

• The Type 84 reversible uniform features a slightly different disruptive pattern printed on one side, with a color variation of the duck hunter pattern on the reverse side. This pattern was also used during the Sino-Vietnamese War.

• A variation of the duck hunter camouflage pattern was also issued to the Airborne forces of the People's Liberation Air Force (PLAF) in the late 1980s. The coloration is very green-dominant. As with all early Chinese issue uniforms, the fabric was lightweight and not very durable.

• Seen here is a unique camouflage design printed on parachute shroud fabric, incorporating dark green, olive green, and yellow-green shapes on a light olive green background. Although bearing some similarities to earlier camouflage designs, this one is unique in that it seems to have the shapes of fruits such as pineapples, pears and apples, or at least shapes with similarities to these. As yet we have come across no photographs of the pattern in use, but only an example of the parachute itself (with military markings). Therefore, we are still speculating as to whether this was a short-lived design, experimental, or general purpose, and what era it falls into.

• Throughout the 1980s, the PLA experimented with a number of woodland-type camouflage designs for issue to Chinese Special Forces personnel. The two patterns seen below are from the early (1981-82) and late (1989) period. This design may also have been worn by Naval Infantry stationed on the Nansha Island and Reef in the 1990s.

• Following a series of camouflage trials, the PLA General Rear Equipment Research Institute adopted a camouflage design loosely based on US m81 woodland camouflage pattern in 1987. Known as "87 Pattern Woodland Type", the design would be adopted by the entire PLA (including elements of the Air Force and Navy), and would continue to be fielded in one form or another until 2007 when the pixelated designs were introduced. Different style uniforms in this pattern have also been exported to several countries around the world, including Albania and several nations in Africa.

• Reputedly introduced in the early 1990s for service with the People's Liberation Navy (PLN), this blue-dominant horizontal stripe pattern camouflage (aka "blue ripple") probably only saw service for a few years.

• The People's Liberation Navy (PLN) introduced an "Oceanic" variation of the standard woodland camouflage for use by Chinese Marines in the mid-1990s. Using essentially the same drawings, the pattern incoporates black, dark olive and blue woodland shapes on very pale blue background. This pattern would remain in use until approximately 1999.

• The People's Liberation Air Force (PLAF) introduced its own variation of the standard woodland camouflage pattern for use by Air Force personnel in 1996. The pattern incorporates dark blue, mid-brown, and dark green shapes on a white background. This design was worn between 1996 and 2006.

• The duck hunter spot pattern issued previously on reversible camouflage uniforms (and to the PLAF Airborne forces) was re-introduced in a slightly more bold coloration in the mid-1990s, reputedly for wear by personnel operating in low mountain or hilly regions regions.

• Another pattern from the mid-1990s is the Plateau or Mountain pattern, sometimes called the "winter pattern." Featuring black, brown & olive green woodland shapes on tan background, the pattern was primarily issued to PLA units operating in northern temperate regions & arid regions of China in fall/winter.

• A vertical leaf camouflage pattern was also produced at this time for PLA units serving either in the Guangdong (广东省) or Guangzhou (广州市) region of China, although it was probably issued to PLA units serving elsewhere also.

• The PLAF Airborne Divisions began wearing a four-colour urban camouflage pattern on parades around 1999. This Type 99 design does not seem to be worn operationally, but only as a mark of their elite status.

• Around 1999, the PLN replaced the old "Oceanic" camouflage design with a pattern based on the US m81 woodland camouflage drawings, but having black, dark blue, and blue grey-woodland shapes on a pale lavender background. This would be replaced in 2007 by the new pixelated design.

• PLA Special Forces began wearing a copy of the US six-color desert camouflage pattern around 1999-2000. The pattern does not appear to have been issued to conventional units.

• A copy of the German Army's Flecktarn camouflage design emerged in 2001 and was issued to some PLA Border Defense units in NE China during summer & for physical training by PLA personnel.

• Introduced in 2003, The PLA Plateau Region pattern is a brown-dominant variation of the German Flecktarn design. The pattern was in service with PLA units operating in Tibet, Inner Mongolia & the Beijing Military Region. Also issued with the uniform is a quilted fleece jacket (below, right) printed in the camouflage pattern.

• A copy of the German Army's desert flecktarn camouflage design was also issued to PLA Airborne Forces, reputedly for OPFOR training.

• Circa 2004-2005 the PLA Special Forces adopted a DPM pattern similar to that worn by the Philippines. This camouflage is referred to colloquially as "hunter camouflage."

• Adopted circa 2005 by the PLA Rocket Forces engineer units, this woodland variant pattern was only in circulation until around 2009 but may have influenced the color palette chosen for the later Type 07 parade pattern.

First observed in June 2007, the PLA introduced the "Type 07" series of pixelated camouflage patterned uniforms, which would replace all previous "Type 87" camouflage design uniforms worn by the military and paramilitary branches of service. Utilizing six different color palettes, the Type 07 series of designs includes the "Universal" pattern, "Desert/Arid" pattern, "Woodland" pattern, "Oceanic" pattern, "Special Operations Forces" pattern, and an "Urban" pattern.

• The Type 07 general issue or "Universal Camouflage" pattern (07 式通用迷彩作训服) was intended as a general purpose working and combat design for conventional personnel of the PLA. The pattern consists of mid-brown, grey-green and small elements of very dark green on a neutral grey background.

• The Type 07 "Arid Camouflage" pattern (07式荒漠迷彩作训服) was designed for PLA personnel operating in desert and arid mountainous regions. It has been worn by Special Forces personnel also, and first appeared on this unit when marching in the 60th National Day parade in 2009.

• The Type 07 "Oceanic Camouflage" pattern (07式海洋迷彩作训服) is a blue-dominant version of the Type 07 worn by the Chinese Naval vessel crews and by the Chinese Marines.

• The first Type 07 produced for the People's Liberation Army Air Force (中国人民解放军空军) is seen here. Reputedly known as "09 Aviation," this coloration was short-lived and replaced the "Urban Camouflage" seen below, although it may occasionally be seen in use by Chinese security forces stationed near airports and other air force facilities.

• The Type 07 "Urban Camouflage" pattern (07式城市迷彩作训服) was introduced for use by the People's Liberation Army Air Force (中国人民解放军空军), including paratroopers of the 15th Airborne Army. Colors are black, medium blue and grey on a pale blue background. This design is also known unofficially as "Air Force Camouflage."

• The Type 07 "Woodland Camouflage" pattern (07式林地迷彩作训服) was worn by certain strategic rocket units of the PLA.

• The Type 07 "Special Operations Forces Camouflage" pattern (07式特战迷彩作训服) is essentially a pixelated version of the Type 04 DPM camouflage design adopted by PLA special operations units. Introduced in 2010, it was first worn by the 38th Army Group Special Operations Unit.

• At a 2012 summer camp sponsored by the PLA, the pattern seen here was observed among the youth participants. It consists of black, mud brown and light brown woodland shapes on a khaki background.

• Units stationed in extremely cold regions of China wear a white camouflage outer layer of clothing imprinted with sparse olive green pixelated shapes. The overall effect is similar to the German Army's schneetarn pattern, which is probably the origin of the PLA design. This version is known as Type 07.

• The green-dominant pixelated design seen here has been adopted in 2014 specifically for the 1st OPFOR Brigade (Wolves of Zhurihe) of the PLA, which is the current designation of the former 195th Mechanized Infantry Brigade. This design was only issued for approximately one year.

• Adopted circa 2015 for wear by Opposing Forces (OPFOR), this pixelated design seen here has been documented in use by the PLA 195th Mechanized Infantry Brigade (aka "Blue Force").

• Beginning in 2018 PLA OPFOR units were observed wearing a splotchy blue-tone "woodland" type camouflage uniform. This design appears to be worn concurrently with the digital pattern adopted earlier.

• Officially introduced during the October 1st 2019 parade celebrating the National Day of the People's Republic of China, a new mottled camouflage design for the PLA can be seen here. The design appears to incorporate russet, several shades of green and dark brown or black spattered shapes on a khaki background. Called Xingkong (星空 or "starry sky") the design is being issued in five color schemes. Unlike the Type 07 camouflage, individual service branches will no longer have their own, individualized color palette. Rather, the five color variants will be issued to all PLA personnel serving in the following environments: woodland (dark green), jungles (mid-green), desert (sand), tundra (dark tan), and urban (grey).

Camouflage of the Chinese People's Armed Police Force and other Agencies

The Chinese People's Armed Police Force (中国人民武装警察部队), often referred to as CPAPF or PAP is a large organization with overarching responsibilities. Formed in 1982, the agency oversees a number of law-enforcement responsibilities, including internal security, public unrest, counter-terrorism, and maritime security. Until 2018, the PAP was organized into eight Corps, each with a different area of responsibility: Internal Guard, Gold, Forestry, Hydropower, Transportation, Border Defense, Firefighting, and Safeguard Corps. Collectively, the Gold, Forestry, Hydropower, and Transportation Corps were known as the Specialist Corps, while the Border Defense, Firefighting, and Guard Corps were known as the Public Security Corps. Since 2018, all of the non-combatant/non-enforcement Corps were moved into the jurisdiction of other governmental agencies, leaving only the Internal Guard Corps and the Transportation Corps under the People's Armed Police title, which now includes the Coast Guard.

• Armed Police 1st pattern, possibly introduced in 1989. This is very similar to the first pattern originally introduced for PLA Special Forces, but the shapes are different.

• First introduced in the late 1980s, a vertical "leaf" camouflage design continued to be worn by units of the Armed Police operating in tropical or forested regions well into the 1990s. Although the colors varied from the original design to later productions, the shapes remained essentially the same.

• From around 2003, a flecktarn variation with "urban" coloration was reputedly adopted by People's Armed Police Snow Leopard unit, for use by OPFOR/enemy forces.

• This bright orange pattern based on PLA "woodland-type" drawings was adopted by the Firefighting Corps circa 2005.

• Another variation of the bright orange "woodland" pattern has also seen service with the Firefighting Corps while still part of the PAP.

• A third variation of orange-dominant camouflage for the Firefighting Corps, based on m81 woodland camouflage screens, is seen here. Although dates of adoption are unknown, this likely post-dated the earlier PLA-woodland style camouflage.

• The Type 05 pixelated pattern was adopted in 2005.

• The Type 09 Jungle pixelated pattern was adopted in 2007, and replaced the earlier Type 05 pattern.

• The Type 11 Jungle pattern pixelated design was adopted in 2011.

• The Type 11 Gobi pixelated design seen here was adopted in 2011.

• Two pixelated variations of tiger stripe camouflage were adopted for use by Special Warfare/SWAT units of the People's Armed Police. A standard, green dominant version is in general distribution, and a brown variation for winter operations.

• Circa 2018-19, a darker variation of the brown-dominant scheme was briefly adopted for use in higher altitude regions, but its use was short-lived. There was also a blue-dominant version created for aviation units of the Armed Police, but never officially adopted.

• In 2018, the Firefighting Corps was renamed the State Firefighting Service and has come under the administration of the Ministry of Emergency Management. Elements of the Firefighting Service now wear a semi-pixelated camouflage design utilizing the same color palette as was previously worn by the Firefighting Corps.

• Students attending the Hong Kong Youth Military Summer Camp, held at the Xinwei Barracks of the PLA Hong Kong Garrison, wear uniforms in a unique blue-colored flecktarn-inspired pattern. This design has been in use since at least 2014.

• This camouflage design (PAP21) was adopted by Chinese People's Armed Police (CPAP) in 2021.

Experimental, Short-Lived and Unofficial Chinese Camouflage Patterns

• This blue-dominant, woodland-derivative camouflage design made a public appearance during a 1999 military parade for Chinese Navy personnel. It was never officially adopted.

• Also in 2003, a modified copy of the US MARPAT camouflage design was tested by PLA Special Forces. The design is essentially the same, with the pixels being reduced in size by about 25%. It also lacks the EGA logo of the USMC. This was a short-lived design, having been replaced by the pixelated designs in 2007.

• Around 2003, the PLA produced a copy of the US tricolor desert pattern for issue to Special Forces. The pattern would have see very limited distribution, as it would be replaced in 2007 by the new series of pixelated designs.

• This variation of the design introduced for Chinese People's Armed Police (CPAP) was intended for aviation/helicopter units, but was never officially adopted.

• Limited use of Multicam was seen by some PLA units in the early 2000s.

• Appearing alongside the official 2007 issue pixelated designs, a variation for use by Airborne Troops was introduced at the 2009 military parade, but never officially adopted.

• In 2015 the Chinese military displayed a new "all-terrain" MultiCam-influenced pattern that was intended to replace the Type-07 uniform group. The pattern was only seen during 2015 Victory Day.

• Circa 2016 PLA forces deplying as OPFOR for training purposes appeared wearing this pixelated camouflage design loosely based on US MARPAT temperate pattern. It does not appear the design remained in use, and was probably only used for a single exercise.

• Special operations units of the Chinese military utilizing rotocopters/gyroplanes were observed wearing the a locally-produced copy of the Kryptek Highlander pattern in 2016-2017.