South Africa

Republic of South Africa

The Republic of South Africa (Republiek van Suid-Afrika) was originally inhabited by Khoisan-speaking hunter-gatherers, but these were largely displaced in the 4th or 5th century CE by Bantu-speaking tribes, of whom the Xhosa and Zulu were the most prominent. Portuguese explorers were the first Europeans to reach Southern Africa, naming the southern tip the Cabo da Boa Esperança (Cape of Good Hope) but building no settlements or making any land claims. The first Euoprean settlement was founded by Jan van Riebeeck in 1652 on behalf of the Dutch East India Company, and would eventually become Cape Town. Dutch settlers followed shortly thereafter and would engage the local Xhosa in what came to be known as the Cape Frontier Wars between 1779 and 1879, a struggle primarily over land use. Several Boer republics, including the Transvaal and the Orange Free State, would emerge out of the Dutch victories.

Having assumed control of the Cape of Good Hope in 1795 and established the Cape Colony, Britain began its own settlement program and became involved in a border dispute between Boers in the Transvaal and the Zulu nation, leading to the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879 (ending with the defeat of the Zulus). With the discovery of gold and silver in the region still later, Britain intensified its plans to dominate the region. Rivalry over mineral rights and control of the land would spark the First Anglo-Boer War lasting from 1880-1881, and the much longer Second Anglo-Boer War which ran from 1899 to 1902. Following a British victory, the Boer republics would be incorporated into the new Union of South Africa, formed in 1910 as a British dominion. The Union achieved independence from the UK in 1931.

A policy of legally institutionalized segregation (later called apartheid) which had its origins in the Boer republics, would become systematized by the Nationalist Government after 1948, effectively putting control of the nation in the hands of the white (European) minority. In May 1961, the nation elected to leave the British Commonwealth and became the Republic of South Africa. Yet despite opposition the policy of apartheid was continued, leading to boycotts of South Africa by various Western nations, a growing movement of discontent, and an interest in African nationalism by the non-white population.

The African National Congress (ANC) had been founded in the early 20th century as a means of uniting all black Africans under one political ideal. Its opposition to apartheid began in the 1940s and 1950s, with a period of strikes, boycotts and civil disobedience. In response to the killing of 69 people by the government during a protest, the armed wing of the ANC, Umkhonto we Sizwe (or MK)the "Spear of the Nation," came into being. The ANC philosophy became one of armed resistance, as they did not feel non-violent campaigns towards change were working. Although apartheid-era policies of discrimination, illegal incarceration, and violent intimidation by the government are undisputed, the guerilla campaign of the MK would ultimately condone its own acts of terrorism, including sabotage, kidnapping, political intimidation, and attacks on rural families. The ANC would over the course of its war against the government, ally itself with several other nationalist insurgency movements, including SWAPO (South West Africa), ZANLA (Rhodesia), the MPLA (Angola), and FRELIMO (Mozambique).

Although politically motivated and widely supported by governments and organizations sympathetic to their cause, and by a significant percentage of the African population, Umkhonto we Sizwe never posed a serious threat to the government of South Africa. Its guerilla campaign was largely ineffective, and resulted in a much more concentrated and effective counter-insurgency campaign by the South African Defense Force (SADF) and the South African Police (SAP). It was largely as a result of intense international pressure that the Nationalist Government finally took steps to dismantle apartheid and move towards a more democratic society. Universal general elections were held in 1994, with the ANC winning an overwhelming majority of parliamentary seats, and Nelson Mandela elected as the nation's first black leader. The ANC has dominated South African politics ever since, yet despite international support of the new democratic goverment, there is no question that the nation's stability, productivity, and standards of living have all been in decline since 1994. Whether the nation will be able to turn itself around remains to be seen.

Prior to 1994, the armed forces of South Africa were called the South African Defense Force (SADF), and the national police service were the South African Police (SAP). Another branch of service, the South African Railway Police (SARP), was a remnant of the old Harbor Police in Cape Town established in the late 19th century. Within each of the major services, in addition to a host of highly trained conventional and support units, several elite or special operations units were maintained, and many of these units would be issued with unique or highly specialized camouflage clothing. The standard operational uniform of the SADF would be a medium brown color, called "nutria."

Within the Army, the early Hunter Group and the Reconnaissance Regiments (later the SADF Special Forces) were two units issued a wide variety of camouflage patterns developed specifically for the units. Reconnaissance units, whose highly classified job was to infiltrate enemy territory for purposes of intelligence gathering, sabotage, or counter-insurgency, were furnished with a wide series of "copy" pattern uniforms, literally copied from the military clothing worn by various foreign military units and insurgency groups known to operate in the surrounding regions. The South African Police had their own camouflage patterns, one version of which continues to be worn into the present period, and the SARP also issued with a unique camouflage design to their Special Task Force members.

After the change of government in 1994, the SADF was reorganized into the South African National Defense Force (SANDF), which consists of the SA Army, Navy, Air Force, and Military Health Service. With 74,000 active duty personnel, this is the largest military force in all of Africa. The SAP were also renamed the South African Police Service (SAPS).

South African Defence Force Camouflage

Hunter Group Background

The Hunter Training Group was an early, all-volunteer, counter-insurgency unit trained in guerrilla warfare, patrolling, tracking, bushcraft, and intelligence gathering. The unit was formed in 1968 but was not officially part of the SADF and in fact never recognized as an official unit. It was, however, the first military formation to wear specialized camouflage clothing in South Africa, since at the time no camouflage was being produced or worn by either the SADF or the SAP. All uniforms were purchased privately by members of the unit and eventually standardized camouflage was obtained from a supplier in Durban. The Hunter Group was disbanded in 1974, but members who went on to pass the selection course became the nucleus of 2 Reconnaissance (Citizen Force) Commando.

• As there was no specific industry for producing camouflage military clothing in South Africa at the time, all uniforms worn by units of the SADF were obtained from private firms. While most units wore only the nutria or medium brown fatigues of the SADF, some specialized units experimented with or even unofficially adopted various designs sourced through South African commercial companies. The designs were unique to the South African market and were not reproduced, with most items having commercial-style tags. What has come to be known as "1st pattern Hunter Group" camouflage features blotches of grass green, light brown & yellow ochre on a sandy background, and appears to have been the very first commercial design to see widespread use with South African forces. Extant photos from the late 1970s also show limited use by some members of 5th SAI Battalion, as well as 1st Parachute Battalion personnel. In the latter cases, it seems likely this was for evaluative purposes only, as camouflage was never officially adopted by either during this time.

• Another South African commercial pattern, often referred to as "Hunter Group 2nd Pattern Camouflage," was produced in two color variations, with either a tan or light olive green background and no other differences. The design features dense blotches of black, olive green & reddish brown. Extant photos show its use among Hunter Group personnel. It is not presently known whether units of SADF ever tested or evaluated this pattern.

• A variation of the above "2nd Pattern" camouflage was also printed without the black shapes. This pattern has only three colors, with blotches of grass green & yellowish brown on a sandy background.

• In the mid-1970s, the Hunter Group also tested a four color "spot" pattern incorporating blood red, reddish-brown and grass green spots on a tan background. Uniforms were produced in very limited numbers and were not adopted or widely distributed.

• An early camouflage pattern developed for the SADF and issued to the Reconnaissance Commandos incoporated dark brown, dark olive green and russet stripes on a pale green background, with some variability between production runs. Referred to in some circles as Recce "wet season" camouflage, this camouflage design was initially produced between 1970 and 1976, although evidence indicates leftover stocks were later supplied to the 32 Bn Reconnaissance Wing circa April 1977 (but only worn on operations outside of South West Africa). The design was later "copied" by the Reconaissance Regiments (see below), where it was given the designation Pattern 1. It is worth noting that the distinctive camouflage patterns later adopted by 32 Battalion were based on the original drawings of this design.

32 Battalion Background

The SADF 32 Battalion was initially formed in 1975 from elements of a specialized unconventional warfare unit composed primarily of Angola's FNLA who had been trained and supplied by South African special forces under Colonel Jan Breytenbach, as well as some members of UNITA that no longer wished to remain fighting for Angolan independence. All of its enlisted members were Portuguese-speaking Angolans that had been forced to leave their nation after FAPLA's provisional victory. The primary objective of 32 Battalion was counter-insurgency operations targeting PLAN in South West Africa as well as FAPLA. The unit would be disbanded in 1991, but not before acquiring one of the most lethal reputations of any unit in the SADF. Prior to its official desgination as 32 Battalion, the unit was known as Bravo Group and operated mostly independently from the SADF command structure and supply system.

• During the most of Bravo Group's operational years, as well during the early years of 32 Battalion, heavy use was made of Portuguese M1964 pattern vertical lizard camouflage, as well as captured MPLA Cuban "grey lizard" pattern uniforms from 1975 until mid-1976. The Portuguese uniforms originated with ex-FNLA members, who obtained surplus stocks of the uniforms when the Portuguese left Angola.

• In late 1979, then Commandant of 32 Battalion Deon Ferreira received approval for two types of camouflage specifically for his unit, based on the same drawings as the earlier "Recce wet season" pattern, and designated Pattern 2. A summer version or "wet season" (below, left) incorporated dark brown, russet & green on a pale green background, whilst a winter version or "dry season" (below, right) featured dark brown, nutria & green on a light brown background. Prior to the adoption of 32 Battalion camouflage, the unit wore a variety of uniforms on operations, particularly foreign camouflage and a mixture of SADF issue kit.

• An alternate version of the summer pattern is seen below, featuring slightly different colors.

• The DPM camouflage design seen here has an obscured history within the SADF. Photographic evidence confirms that uniforms in this design were provided to RENAMO troops in Mozambique (early 1980s) by South African Special Forces personnel who were training them in parachuting techniques at the time. There is some conjecture that the design was developed for the Recces themselves, as a kind of "generic" camouflage pattern to be worn on clandestine operations, but thus far no photographic evidence can corroborate this. According to a former member of the 32 Battalion Recce Wing, however, the design was also issued to members of that unit in 1990 but never actually worn on operations. At least two styles of uniform were issued, of which one was in precisely the same style as other 32 Battalion clothing.

• South African Parachute Battalions ("Parabats") experimented with several camouflage patterns over the years, but never officially adopted any particular camouflage design exclusive to airborne personnel. One of the early trial patterns, reputedly designed for the 44th Parachute Brigade by former brigade commander Colonel Frank J. Bestbier and a development team, was a two-color "giraffe" pattern, incorporating dark brown spots on a fawn or tan-colored background. Initially tested during the 1983-84 time frame, uniforms in this pattern were issued only to select personnel at the Brigade HQ, some instructors at the Airborne School, and a handful of Citizen Force paratroopers. However, the program was quickly nixed once discovered by SADF Army Headquarters and all existing stocks were destroyed. Surviving examples may consist of only a single uniform.

• Tested and introduced between 1991 and 1993, the "Soldier 2000" camouflage design saw its first large scale issue to the SANDF in 1994. The pattern, developed by CSIR-Textile Technology group, features blotches of dark green, grass green & pale green with dark green & pale green spots on an earth brown field and is printed on a wide variety of uniform items as well as field equipment. This pattern has been the operational and daily working uniform of all Defence Force members into the 21st century.

• Announced in the Spring of 2022, and officially revealed in November of that year, a new operational camouflage design for the SANDF is now in the production stages. The pattern having a slightly darker color palette than "Soldier 2000" still carries over some features of its predecessor, including miniature speck or chip-like elements scattered throughout the design. Incorporating six primary colors, there are additional shades of color created by the blending of colors in areas where they are overprinted, thus creating a very mottled effect. According to SADNF sources, the new pattern is intended only for operational use (both internally and externally) and will not replace S2000 or be worn as a regular working uniform.

Reconnaissance and Special Forces Regiment Camouflage

The first Reconnaissance Regiment was formed in 1972 and loosely based on the Selous Scouts and Special Air Service Regiments of the Rhodesian Security Forces. There would eventually be six Reconnaissance Regiments (or "Recces") numbered 1 through 6, but 3 and 6 would be disbanded in 1981 and their members absorbed into other units. Primarily intelligence-gathering units, the term "regiment" seems to have been intentionally mis-applied to the units, which were in fact composed of rather smaller numbers. Operating as they did primarily outside the borders of South Africa, and most often in territory populated by unfriendly civilians and combatants alike, the Recces would come to produce a complete range of camouflage uniforms copied from the commonly encountered models worn by enemy or unfriendly units in neighboring Angola, Mozambique, and Zimbabwe, among others. These "Copy" uniforms would often mimic exactly the same style of construction as the originals, although alternate versions would use only the copied fabric and would be tailored to the more practical needs of a reconnaissance operator.

• One of the earliest foreign camouflage designs worn by Recce personnel during deployments was not a "copy" pattern at all, but original Rhodesian brushstroke design uniforms. These were worn while operating alongside units of the Rhodesian Special Air Service (SAS) on clandestine operations in Mozambique during 1974 .

• The full range of Recce "Copy" camouflage patterns are illustrated below. In the first row, from left to right: Pattern 1 "wet season" camouflage (re-issue - with darker colours), Cuba "elm leaf" pattern, Cuba grey lizard pattern, and the East German "rain" (aka "rice fleck") pattern.

• In the second row, from left to right: Egyptian vertical "lizard" pattern, French tenue du leopard or lizard pattern, Lebanese blue "vertical stripe" pattern (probably copied from a model produced in Egypt or Syria), the so-called "Libyan rhubarb" pattern (copied from a pattern worn by SWAPO), and the Portuguese m63 lizard pattern.

• In the last row is the Tanzanian DPM pattern, and Zimbabwe 1st pattern "dry season".

• Another camouflage design utilized by the Recces was never printed on fabric for clothing, but instead on waterproofed nylon cloth used to make groundsheets, a flotation device, field packs, and various types of field equipment. The official designation is P90 (Pattern 90) but the design is usually nicknamed "cabbage patch."

• The duck hunter camouflage design seen here is of undetermined origin, but was definitely utilized by reconnaissance personnel for various personalized pieces of kit, per individual needs. Sourced in raw bolts of fabric, the pattern was utilized to create many different types of items, from small bandanas to large table cloths and sniper hides. Private tailors were also enlisted to create personal kit like sleeping bags from this fabric.

• Following universal elections in 1994, the change in South African government brought about new diplomatic relations with neighboring countries, including friendlier and more cooperative military relationships. During this time period, the remaining Reconnaissance Commandos were renamed Special Forces Regiments and grouped together administratively as a Brigade. Although the use of older stocks of "copy" camouflage would continue for training purposes, it no longer remained politically relevant to retain or manufacture uniforms worn by military and insurgent forces that previously found themselves in opposition to the South African government. Nevertheless, an unofficial DPM pattern camouflage appeared in the mid- to late 1990s within the South African Special Forces community. SF sources often call this "Chinese training camouflage," most likely in reference to the origins of the uniforms themselves. Unlike earlier "copy" camouflage uniforms, the DPM items have no numbered designations or removable paper labels. The camouflage itself bears a very striking resemblance to some designs worn by Botswana, and may in fact have been sourced from the same companies in China that produced such uniforms for the BDF. Rather than being intended for clandestine operations across the borders of South Africa, the SF community considers these training uniforms, although the specific definition of "training" remains to be clarified.

South African Police and other Federal Services

• The South African Police (SAP) adopted its own camouflage pattern in 1969, consisting of grass green and russet foliage shapes on a khaki background. The pattern began as a civilian design available at commercial sporting outlets in the 1960s. That design remained unchanged until 1972, when it was slightly modified. The SAP 1st pattern camouflage can be distinguished by the "smudge" and "pinwheel" shapes within the pattern, for which it is often called "pinwheel pattern." As can be seen below, several different variations were produced, as the fabric was printed by a variety of private textile companies without any concern for consistency. Also produced in Rhodesia, the pattern was worn into the 1970s by the SAP, and also by some Police units in South West Africa. Use of this camouflage was not limited to the SAP, but was also worn by the SADF Reconnaissance Commandos and the Recce Wings of 32nd and 31st Battalions beginning around 1976.

• Beginning in 1973, the South African Police camouflage design changed somewhat, losing both the "smudge" and "pinwheel" features but retaining the foliated shapes that distinguish the general design. Coloration of the SAP 2nd pattern camouflage remained relatively the same, although as with the 1st pattern there were many variations produced due to inconsistencies in the production from one firm to another. Circa 2004, the SAPS eradicated the use of camouflage using the logic that it wished the service to have a "less militarized" appearance. Since that time, only the Special Task Force have continued to utilize the old 2nd pattern camouflage design.

• Between 1975 and 1986, the Special Task Force of the South African Railway Police (SARP) were issued a horizontal stripe pattern of black, reddish-brown and dark olive green on a nutria background. Once retired (when the SARP were disbanded) the pattern would later be adopted by the Ciskei tribal homeland.

• Despite an intolerance for the use of camouflage by units of the SAPS, the Special Protection Unit (SPU) does issue its own distinctive lizard or tiger stripe design, incorporating olive green, medium brown and small black stripes on a grey background. There is some similarity to the pattern designed and worn by Cuban advisors as well as Angolan military personnel in the 1970s and 1980s.

• Park Rangers of the South Africa National Parks (SANParks) are charged with managing the twenty-one national parks within the borders of South Africa. Rangers wear a unique camouflage design with arid color palette, designed by camoufleur Riaan Rossouw, and incorporating green and brown shapes on a sand-colored background.

Paramilitary and Insurgent Group Camouflage

• The Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB) or Afrikaaner Resistance Movement was a conservative political and paramilitary movement founded in 1973 to establish an independent Boer State and defend the existing apartheid laws in South Africa. They professed vehement opposition to the ideals of the ANC, and in 1994 came to the defense of the government of Bophuthatswana during the attempted coup d'etat, engaging Defence Force members and enduring some casualties. The movement is no longer considered paramilitary, but rather political. Prior to the change in government, members of the movement often appeared in two locally-produced camouflage patterns based on DPM - both a desert and an urban variant.

• The Mkonto We Sizwe (MK) of the ANC generally utilized whatever uniforms and military equipment were available to them, and often operated in civilian clothing. Nevertheless, over the course of their long insurgency campaign against the South African government, large quantities of certain uniforms were obtained through private sources and foreign governments sympathetic to the movement's political ideals. The two woodland patterns seen below were sourced through British companies.

• The leaf pattern seen here was produced in Europe and also exported to the MK.

• In service with the armed forces of Angola in the 1990s, the "swirl" design seen here originated in China, and was also exported in some quantity to the MK.

• Another Chinese export, a darker-colored variation of their standard woodland variant, is seen here. This pattern also saw service with Uganda's National Resistance Army (NRA).

South African Commercial Patterns

By law it is technically illegal to wear camouflage uniforms in public that had been adopted by any military or paramilitary organization. South African companies have produced a large number of varied camouflage patterns from the apartheid period into the present era, in part to provide some legitimate hunting designs for commercial purposes.

• The pattern seen below was sold commercially by Sterling Clothing and probably dates to the mid-1970s. Sources indicate that this pattern may also have been worn by individuals of the Hunter Training Group during this time period.

• A commercial copy of the Rhodesian Brushstroke camouflage design was developed in South Africa and originally produced by the Adder/Adro company. Although the design resembles the Rhodesian pattern, it was not copied directly from the original screens and varies considerably in the size and shapes of the brush strokes, as well as the overall coloration. The original screens from this pattern were later sold or licensed outside of South Africa, where they were utilized by companies in both the USA and Asia to produce additional fabrics in poly-cotton twill and ripstop.

• Another pattern produced by Adder/Adro specifically for civilian distribution (although often attributed to "special forces" or "special police urban operations") is this two-color pattern derived from British DPM designs. Consisting of black disruptive shapes on a grey background, this pattern seems to have been produced exclusively in South Africa and does not appear to have been exported like the Rhodesian version. Photographic evidence shows this pattern was also worn by the Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging (AWB) or Afrikaaner Resistance Movement, interchangably with the "urban DPM" pattern shown in the above section.

• The firm Stevenson Hamilton has been producing a line of sportsman products, including clothing printed in a unique camouflage design that utilizes the same colour palette as the South African Police 2nd pattern.